by Al Maxey

PERSONAL BACKGROUND

The name Obadiah means "Servant of Yahweh" (literally -- "One who serves or worships Jehovah"). This prophecy has the distinction of being the shortest book in the OT. There are twelve different individuals in the OT with this name (a very common name), but no indication that any of these other individuals are to be identified with this particular prophet.

Nothing is known about his life, background or personality except what little can be inferred from this prophecy. It is assumed that he was a native of Judah. Others feel he may also have been among the circle of prophets attached to the Jerusalem Temple. The Jewish Talmud states Obadiah was not Jewish, but rather an Edomite proselyte God used to rebuke his own people.

DATE

In addition to being the shortest book in the OT, Obadiah also "bears the distinction of being the most difficult of all the prophecies to date" (Gleason Archer). His work is ascribed to periods ranging from 845 to 400 BC. There are two major theories:

1. 585 BC ---  This is the view held by most liberal scholars. It places this prophecy about a year after the fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians.

 

2. 845 BC ---  This is the view held by "a good majority of the evangelical scholars of the 19th and 20th centuries" (Archer). It places the prophecy during the days of King Jehoram (848 - 841 BC) when Jerusalem was attacked by the Philistines and Arabians (with probable cooperation from the Edomites --- II Kings 8:20; II Chron. 21:8-10, 16-17). This view seems to be the most probable. (For an excellent defense of this position see -- A Survey of OT Introduction, by Gleason L. Archer, Jr., p. 299-303, and A Commentary on the Minor Prophets, by Homer Hailey, p. 28-29.)

LITERARY RELATIONS

This is one of seven OT books which is not quoted in the pages of the NT. However, there are obvious relationships with several other OT books:

• There is a similarity between numerous phrases found in Joel 3 and Obadiah.

 

• "Because of violence" --- Joel 3:19 and Obad. 10

 

• "Your deeds shall return on your own head" --- Joel 3:4-7 and Obad. 15

 

• "The day of the Lord is near" --- Joel 1:15; 2:1; 3:14 and Obad. 15

 

• "In Mt. Zion there shall be those that escape" --- Joel 3:17 and Obad. 17

 

• It appears that Jeremiah was familiar with the work of Obadiah. Compare Jer. 49:7-22 with Obadiah 1-9. There is "strong evidence that the prophet Jeremiah had read and adapted for his own purposes Obad. 1-9" (Archer).

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

This prophecy is against the people of Edom. The Edomites were descendants of Esau (Genesis 36:8-9), whereas the Israelites were descendants of Jacob, the twin brother of Esau. Thus, the peoples were very closely related.

From the very beginning there was enmity between these two brethren --- an enmity which carried over to the nations which descended from them.

• Jacob and Esau "struggled together" within the womb of Rebekah (Gen. 25:22). In the next verse the Lord tells her, "Two nations are in your womb."

 

• There was conflict over the taking of the birthright by Jacob from Esau (Gen. 25:27-34). It was at this time that Esau gained the name Edom (meaning "red") --- the color of the stew for which he sold his birthright (Gen. 25:30). Much of the land occupied by the Edomites was made up of dark red sandstone; this was also the color of Esau at his birth (Gen. 25:25).

 

• There was conflict when Jacob tricked Isaac into blessing him instead of Esau (Gen. 27).

 

• There was trouble years later as the two brothers met (Gen. 32-33).

 

• Conflict between the two nations (Edom and Israel) began at the time of the Exodus from Egypt when Edom refused to let the people of Israel pass through their region on the way to the promised land (Numbers 20:14-21).

 

• This enmity continued until the time of King David when he put them under subjection to Israel (II Samuel 8:14).

 

• During the reign of Jehoram, Edom revolted (II Kings 8:20-22; II Chron. 21:8-10) and set up their own king. It was during this time, about 845 BC, that Obadiah gave his prophecy to the people of Edom.

The people of Edom were continually filled with hatred for Israel. Speaking of these people, Amos 1:11 says, "he pursued his brother with the sword, while he stifled his compassion; his anger also tore continually, and he maintained his fury forever." As a result, Malachi 1:3-4 says that the Lord would utterly destroy the Edomites. They had become the people "toward whom the Lord is indignant forever!"

During their later history the Nabatean Arabs took over the territory of Edom and drove them from their land. They fled to the area south of the Dead Sea, and in time came to be known as the Idumaeans. Around 120 BC they were conquered by John Hyrcanus of the Maccabees, who forced many of them to be circumcised and to accept the Law of Moses.

During the trial of Jesus Christ we see the final confrontation --- Jesus (a descendant of Jacob) stood before King Herod (a descendant of Esau).

"By 100 AD the people of Edom had become lost to history" (Homer Hailey). "If you travel today in the region of Edom, you will find nothing but the most stark wilderness and the most isolated emptiness ..... it is one of the most formidable, forsaken spots on earth" (Briscoe). They will "become as if they had never existed!" (Obad. 16).

OCCASION

The city of Jerusalem had been attacked by the Philistines and Arabians. The city had been stormed and looted. Edom, who was in a state of revolt, sided with the invading forces and shared in the spoils (Obad. 11). They gloated over Israel's misfortune (Obad. 12-13), and killed or imprisoned those who fled the destruction (Obad. 14).

THE MESSAGE

This book is structured around two major themes:

1. The destruction of Edom --- also referred to as Esau and Teman

 

2. The vindication of Judah --- also referred to as Jacob, Jerusalem, and Mount Zion

The use of Jacob and Esau in particular, along with such phrases as "your brother," draws attention to the blood relationship between these two nations. "It is the violation of these ties that occasion both Obadiah's denunciation of Edom and the necessity for Judah's restoration" (Expositor's Bible Commentary).

THE GREAT LESSONS OF OBADIAH

• John Calvin once remarked that because of the brevity of Obadiah it did "not suggest as many sermons" as the longer prophetic works. Although this may be true, there are nevertheless numerous lessons to be derived from this book. For example --- when one shares in "the spoils of wrong-doing," even though he may not be an instigator of the crime, by "standing aloof" he becomes "as one of them" (Obad. 11).

 

• When someone (even a nation) becomes unjust, cruel and bitter toward someone else ..... especially when they're brethren ..... they will be punished, and the one wronged will be avenged.

 

• As a people sow, so will a people reap! "Do not be deceived, God is not mocked; for whatever a man sows, this he will also reap!" (Gal. 6:7). The Edomites sought to destroy the Israelites, and were themselves destroyed (see Obad. 15).

 

• Obadiah makes it clear that the idea of a nation being invulnerable is an illusion! Edom felt so secure that they believed no one could destroy them. They built entire cities which were hidden within cliffs, and which could only be reached by narrow passes --- the famous city of Petra, which was carved from a mountainside, was in Edom. Their security, however, was misplaced. God said He would destroy them, and history demonstrates how this occurred.

 

• The people were proud and arrogant which led them to be self-deceived. "The arrogance of your heart has deceived you, you who live in the clefts of the rock, in the loftiness of your dwelling place, who say in your heart, 'Who will bring me down to earth?'" (Obad. 3). The answer is in the next verse --- "'From there I will bring you down,' declares the Lord."

 

• The Edomites had become wise in their own eyes. They had all the answers; had need of nothing; God had been left out of the picture. In the OT there is no mention of any Edomite religion or any Edomite gods. "The Edomites had no allegiance to a god. This has led many scholars to believe that this unusual people were so self-sufficient, arrogant, and self-satisfied that they wouldn't even call upon the name of any kind of god. They believed they had all the answers themselves!" (D. Stuart Briscoe).

 

• The Kingdom of the Lord will always ultimately prevail (Obad. 21 --- "And the kingdom will be the Lord's").

 

• The ultimate sin of Edom was "a manifest display of lack of brotherliness" (Jack P. Lewis). Edom stood by and gloated over the misfortune of a brother nation. "He who rejoices at calamity will not go unpunished" (Prov. 17:5).

 

• God provides a place of escape for those who would turn to Him --- Mount Zion (Obad. 17).

Amos

by Al Maxey

PERSONAL BACKGROUND

The meaning of the name Amos (which is from the Hebrew verb amas = "to lift a burden, to carry") is "burden-bearer." He was a native of the southern kingdom of Judah, from the town of Tekoa -- about six miles south of Bethlehem, twelve miles south of Jerusalem, and eighteen miles west of the Dead Sea. Tekoa was the center for a large sheep farming district.

Amos describes himself as one who had three different occupations:

1. Shepherd (Amos 1:1) --- This is the Hebrew word noqed, which was a word used to describe a man who tended a particular small, rugged, speckled variety of sheep (called naqod) which required less food and could live well in the desert, and which produced a wool of superior quality and of great value.

 

2. Herdsman (Amos 7:14) --- This is the Hebrew word boqer, which refers to one who raises or tends cattle.

 

3. Cultivator of Sycamore Figs (Amos 7:14) --- This was the wild fig (siq-mim in Hebrew) which exuded a ball of sap when nipped at the right season, and which hardened into a sort of edible fruit which the lower classes were able to afford. This tree was found at a lower altitude than Tekoa, so Amos undoubtedly had to do some traveling (perhaps down to the Dead Sea region) to tend these trees.

"These occupations made it necessary for Amos to do a large amount of traveling to the wool and cattle markets of Israel and Judah. In this way, he learned firsthand the military, social, and economic conditions and practices of rich and poor alike" (John T. Willis).

Amos was not a "professional" prophet, but a common man utilized by the Lord to deliver His Word to His people. "I am not a prophet, nor am I the son of a prophet ... but the Lord took me from following the flock and the Lord said to me, 'Go prophesy to My people Israel.' And now hear the Word of the Lord!" (Amos 7:14-16). He had no special training; he was not a graduate of the School of the Prophets (variously referred to as "bands" -- I Samuel 10:5, 10, and "companies" -- I Samuel 19:20, and "sons of the prophets" -- I Kings 20:35); nor was he descended from or related to any prophets.

He was not even a citizen of Israel (the northern kingdom), but rather of Judah (the southern kingdom). Nevertheless, God sent him to Israel to proclaim the Word to the people of the northern kingdom. He was not a man of wealth, yet was sent to warn the wealthy; not a man of luxury, or one who was lazy, yet sent to those who were both. All of this was designed to separate the MAN from the MESSAGE. There was to be nothing about this man which would attract a personal following. It was the message God desired the people to focus upon, not the messenger!

Amos did most, if not all, of his prophetic work (the totality of which probably did not last over a year or so --- Amos 1:1) in the city of Bethel (Amos 7:10), where he was denounced by Amaziah the priest and forbidden to preach further in Israel.

"Someone has described Amos as 'the first Great Reformer.' He was not of the school of the prophets, who by this time were disposed to cry what the people wanted ..... There was not in Amos the sympathy, warm love, and feeling of the statesman or citizen, but a cold sense of justice and right. He was the stern prophet of justice and righteousness. Hosea's spirit was summed up in the word lovingkindness; Amos' is summed up in the one word justice" (Homer Hailey).

"The dark days in which he lived called for a man of sturdy moral fiber and fearlessness. Such was Amos. His character, molded in the harsh terrain of the wilderness of Tekoa, enabled him to stand before the priest and the people, proclaiming the word God had given him" (Expositor's Bible Commentary). "At the call of God he left his home in Judea as a mere layman to proclaim a hostile message in the proud capital of the Northern Kingdom of Israel. Without any status as a recognized prophet, he braved the prejudice of the Ephraimite public to carry out faithfully his commission from God. A man of rugged convictions and iron will, he could not be deflected from his purpose even by the highest functionary of the Samaritan hierarchy" (Gleason L. Archer, Jr.).

DATE

Amos 1:1 gives us a fairly accurate picture of when this prophecy occurred. It was during the days of King Uzziah (792-740 BC), and King Jeroboam II of Israel (793-753 BC). His mission to Bethel was also more precisely dated as occurring "two years before the earthquake." This was a very severe earthquake in the reign of Uzziah which was remembered for centuries afterward --- "You will flee just as you fled before the earthquake in the days of Uzziah king of Judah" (Zechariah 14:5). As a result of this information, most scholars date his prophetic work somewhere between 760 and 755 BC.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

This was a time when the fortunes of the northern kingdom (Israel) had reached one of their highest points of prosperity and peace. Jeroboam was able to extend his borders almost to those of the old Davidic kingdom. There was also peace with the southern kingdom (Judah). "After a long period of conflict during which Judah was in many respects subservient to Israel, there was now a spirit of co-operation and mutual enterprise resulting in a flow of trade and commerce between the two kingdoms" (New Layman's Bible Commentary).

It was a time of great economic well-being and national strength. The increase in wealth also led to extensive building programs. The simple brick of earlier days gave way to buildings of hewn stone and ivory decorations. They had "winter houses" and "summer houses" (Amos 3:15). They had "houses of ivory" (Amos 3:15), and "houses of well-hewn stone" (Amos 5:11). They reclined on "beds of ivory" (Amos 6:4); sprawled on couches; ate and drank to their fill; anointed themselves with the finest oils; were surrounded by music (Amos 6:4-7). In short, they were "at ease in Zion" (Amos 6:1).

"Concurrently with the increased wealth there was an associated rise in those social evils which characterized the prosperity of Solomon's reign; the rich became very rich and the poor became even poorer" (New Layman's Bible Commentary). "As their economic well-being and national strength continued to foster their security, an internal decay was eating at their vitals" (Expositor's Bible Commentary).

There was a complete lack of social concern in the land. The rich would stop at nothing to increase their profits, including economic exploitation of the poor. Even the legal system was corrupted, and the poor had no recourse even in the courts. "The rich enjoyed an indolent and indulgent existence, urged on by the rapacity of their wives who demanded more and more luxuries" (New Layman's Bible Commentary).

"Back of all moral, social, and political corruption there lies a basic cause: Religious decay and apostasy" (Homer Hailey). The people were religious, but they were far from being spiritual. Their religion consisted of external acts --- they were putting on a show for God, but He was not fooled. "They prided themselves in their expensive 'church buildings.' They boasted of the numerous sacrifices which they offered, and of the fact that they offered them exactly as the Law prescribed ('legalism'). They gloried in their perfect attendance record at the worship services. They were well pleased with their efforts to sing praises to the Lord. But, by way of contrast, Amos rejected the idea that quantity, numbers, and external show was really religion!" (Willis). Some have criticized Amos for being a preacher of a "social gospel." However, "God made it clear that the heart of religion was to love God with all the heart, and to love one's neighbor as himself. Without these two elements, any number of external acts are meaningless to God" (Willis).

"The prophets had degenerated into time-servers, blinded with the complacency of the nation. Religion certainly flourished in the nation but it was a religion that was completely divorced from reality. There was a great deal of activism and outward show with crowds thronging the shrines at the times of the great festivals. Ritual was elaborate, but there was no true life and no evidence that real spiritual values had any place, and Yahweh was patronized with a presumption bordering upon arrogance" (New Layman's Bible Commentary).

"Extravagant religious ceremonies and rites were manifested on every hand. Tithes were offered every three days; free-will offerings were abundant and the amounts advertised (Amos 4:4-5). Religious fervor was high, but true spiritual devotion to God was utterly lacking" (Homer Hailey). "It was a religion which was empty in content, though full of ritual. Amos insisted that God had no time for ritualistic religion without heart" (New Layman's Bible Commentary).

THE MESSAGE OF AMOS

The book of Amos falls into three major divisions:

1. Chapters 1-2 ---  A series of oracles against "outside" nations, ending with similar oracles against Judah and Israel.

 

2. Chapters 3-6 ---  Condemning various sins which were prevalent in Israel.

 

3. Chapters 7-9 ---  Some information concerning the call of Amos, and five visions which reflect some of the basic themes of his message.

The Oracles Against the Nations:

• Damascus --- 1:3-5
• Gaza --- 1:6-8
• Tyre --- 1:9-10
• Edom --- 1:11-12
• Ammon --- 1:13-15
• Moab --- 2:1-3
• Judah --- 2:4-5
• Israel --- 2:6-16

In the Five Visions of Amos we find the main themes which God wanted this man to emphasize. They are basically visions of doom!

1. The Locusts (Amos 7:1-3) --- Locusts in Palestine were uncontrollable and considered "an act of God." Amos saw in them the threat of God's punishment, and by pleading for the land was able to convince God to relent.

 

2. The Great Fire devouring the land (Amos 7:4-6) --- Some see this as a famine or drought. Again, the prophet pleads with the Lord, and He relents.

 

3. The Plumb Line (Amos 7:7-9) --- The doom of the house of Jeroboam is announced. Amos pleads no further.

 

4. The Basket of Summer Fruit (Amos 8:1-3) --- Prophets frequently convey their message by puns not intended to be humorous. From the similarity of summer (qayits) and end (qets) in Hebrew, the Lord teaches Amos that the end is at hand. "The end has come for My people Israel" (Amos 8:2).

 

5. The Lord Standing Beside the Altar (Amos 9:1f) --- The command is given to smite the Sanctuary and to destroy the sinful people of the land. "The point of this last vision is that when God finally sends the Assyrians to overthrow Israel, that there will be no way for sinners to escape punishment, no matter how hard they try" (John T. Willis).

Joel

by Al Maxey

PERSONAL BACKGROUND

The name Joel (Hebrew = Yo'el) means "Yahweh is God." He was the son of a man named Pethuel (or Bethuel in the Septuagint) which means "the open-heartedness or sincerity of God." Whether Joel received his name at birth, or was given this name later as a result of his ministry, is unknown.

Joel lived and prophesied in the southern kingdom of Judah. He very likely was a resident of the city of Jerusalem. He makes frequent reference to Judah & Jerusalem (2:32; 3:1, 17-18, 20), to their citizens (3:6, 8, 19), to Zion (2:1, 15, 32; 3:17, 21) and its children (2:23). He also shows great familiarity with the Temple and its ministry (1:9, 13-14, 16; 2:14, 17; 3:18). He was also intimately acquainted with the geography and history of the land (1:2; 3:2-8, 12, 14, 18).

Some scholars have suggested his familiarity with the Temple service may indicate he was a priest, or the son of a priest. Others speculate "his castigation of the priests suggests he was not a member of their caste." Little is known about this man, except for what can be gleaned from the book itself. Although 13 other persons in the OT writings bear the name Joel, he cannot be identified with any of them.

"Joel was a man of vitality and spiritual maturity. A keen discerner of the times, he delivered God's message to the people of Judah in a vivid and impassioned style, with a precision and originality of thought that served as a veritable quarry out of which many subsequent prophetic building stones were to be hewn" (Expositor's Bible Commentary).

DATE

There is great disagreement among scholars as to the dating of this book. Theories range from the 9th century to the 4th century BC. Some have even sought to date it as late as the Maccabean Period (during the so-called Intertestimental Period). The problem -- no date is given in the heading of the book, nor is there any explicit reference within the body of the work itself. The major theories are:

• Post-exilic ---  The captivities of God's people have ended. The exiles have returned to their homeland. The Temple has been rebuilt. This view calls for a date in the mid-4th century BC.

 

• Pre-exilic ---  Three general positions have been advanced by those who assign a pre-exilic date to Joel. They are:

 

1. Early Pre-exilic ---  A 9th century date. It is felt the situations depicted within the book point best to the time of the boy-king Joash (835-796 BC), who began his rule through the regency of the high priest Jehoiada.

 

2. Middle Pre-exilic ---  An early 8th century date. An extensive defense of this view is given in The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Vol. 7, p. 231-233.

 

3. Late Pre-exilic ---  A 7th century date. This view seeks to find a link with the prophet Jeremiah, and to harmonize the literary forms and religious outlooks of the two prophets.

The most likely and logical of these theories is the Early Pre-exilic, which would date the prophecy of Joel from about 835 BC on. For an excellent defense of this view see --- A Survey of Old Testament Introduction by Gleason L. Archer, Jr., p. 304-307.

OCCASION

The land has been devastated by a locust plague. Drought, famine and fires follow in the wake of the locust plague. This is far more than just a natural disaster -- it is also a national disaster! Almost every aspect of community life has been affected. The economy of the land has been all but ruined. The whole nation has ground to a halt. Even the religious life of the community is threatened through the shortage of offerings.

Joel sees a link between this natural/national disaster and a time of coming judgment from the Lord God --- the Day of the Lord. Not only was this locust plague an actual judgment from God, but it warned of an even greater impending judgment against the people of God --- when the enemy would not be armies of locust, but armies of men!

This concept of further judgment also led Joel to reveal God's intention for the last days --- the ultimate coming of God in judgment at the end of time.

USE OF JOEL IN THE NT

"While this is one of the briefest books in the OT, it is at the same time one of the most profound. Both in its grasp of the relationship between historical events and the suprahistorical expectation of the day of the Lord, and also in its impact on early Christian theology, its influence has hardly been proportionate to its size" (New Layman's Bible Commentary).

• In Acts 2:16f the apostle Peter states that the things the people were witnessing on the day of Pentecost had been spoken of by the prophet Joel (Joel 2:28-29).

 

• In Romans 10:11-13 Paul refers back to Joel 2:26b and 2:32.

 

• In Mark 4:29 Jesus makes use of Joel 3:13.

 

• There seems to be some dependence on Joel 2:32 in Acts 2:39.

 

• There are several references back to Joel in the Book of Revelation --- Rev. 6:12 (Joel 2:10, 31; 3:15) ....... Rev. 6:17 (Joel 2:11) ....... Rev. 9:7-9 (Joel 1:6; 2:4-5) ....... Rev. 14:15, 18 (Joel 3:13).

MESSAGE

The book falls into two distinct sections:

1. Joel speaks ....... 1:2 - 2:17

 

2. Jehovah speaks ....... 2:18 - 3:21

Joel refers to the natural/national disaster of the locust and tells the people this is to be a warning to them so that they might repent. This disaster heralded the Day of the Lord which could only be averted by genuine repentance. If they repented, this day of judgment would come upon their enemies rather than upon themselves.

"The book is an appeal from Jehovah to the people to seek Him through repentance. Out of this repentance there would come material blessings followed by an outpouring of spiritual blessings" (Homer Hailey). Joel has often been called the Prophet of Pentecost because of his reference to spiritual blessings.

Other major messages of the book of Joel are:

• God is sovereignly guiding the affairs of earth's history toward His preconceived final goal --- 1:15; 2:1-4, 18, 20, 25-27, 28-32; 3:1-21. He is a God of grace and mercy --- 2:13, 18. A God of lovingkindness and compassion --- 2:13. A God of justice --- 3:1-8, 12-13.

 

• Mere externalism in worship to God is insufficient --- 2:12-13.

 

• When sin becomes the dominant condition of God's people, they must be judged. God may use natural disasters, or political means, to accomplish the chastisement of His people. For those who repent there will be the blessings of a restored fellowship.

 

• "Integral to all Joel's prophecy is his teaching about the Day of the Lord. By the skillful use of this term, which gives cohesion to his entire message, Joel demonstrated that God is sovereignly operative in all that comes to pass, directing all things to their appointed end" (Expositor's Bible Commentary).

 

• God had abundantly blessed Judah, but the people had taken God and His blessings for granted. Their faith had degenerated into an empty formalism and their lives into moral decadence. "Under divine inspiration Joel told the people that the locust plague was a warning of a greater judgment that was imminent unless they repented and returned to full fellowship with God. If they did, God would abundantly pardon them, restore the health of the land, and give them again the elements needed to offer the sacrifices. The ceremonial system was designed to express a heart relationship with God. By their sin they had forfeited any right to religious ceremony" (Expositor's Bible Commentary).

Habakkuk

by Al Maxey

PERSONAL BACKGROUND

The name Habakkuk is an unusual one of uncertain meaning. Some feel it comes from the Hebrew word Habaq which means "to embrace" --- thus, his name would signify an "ardent embrace." "At the end of his book this name becomes appropriate because Habakkuk chooses to cling firmly to (embrace) God regardless of what happens to his nation --- 3:16-19" (Expanded Open Bible). Jerome preferred the idea of embracing so as to wrestle, "because he wrestled with God." Martin Luther seemed to favor this idea, saying, "It is certainly not unfitting, for in this little book we see a man, in deadly earnest, wrestling with the mighty problem of theodicy (the divine justice) in a topsy-turvy world."

Others have suggested that his name was derived from an Assyrian flower --- Hambaququ --- but there is no way to verify this. According to a popular Jewish tradition he was the son of the Shunammite woman, since Elisha told her, "At this season next year you shall embrace (habaq) a son" (II Kings 4:16). A second tradition identifies him with the "watchman" of Isaiah 21:6. Further legendary material may be gleaned from the pages of the Apocryphal book Bel and The Dragon (vs. 33-42), where an angel carries this prophet by his hair to Babylon to feed Daniel in the lions' den.

Other than his name, little is known about this prophet. He apparently lived as one of God's called prophets (Habakkuk 1:1) and was not engaged in some secular profession as was Amos (Amos 7:14-15). Some have deduced that the final statement of the book --- "For the choir director, on my stringed instruments" (3:19) --- may indicate that the was also a Levite and a member of the Temple choir, or that he was in some other way connected with the Temple worship in Jerusalem. We may also assume with confidence that he was a prophet of the southern kingdom of Judah, and that he very likely lived in Jerusalem.

DATE

The only explicit time reference in this prophecy is 1:6, where the Lord says, "I am raising up the Chaldeans" (Babylonians). Actually, the Chaldeans were "a tribe of Semites from southern Babylonia, who, under the leadership of Nabopolassar, became rulers of the Neo-Babylonian empire" (Jack Lewis).

This implies a time prior to their rise to power (which came after the critical battle of Carchemish in 605 BC). Before this time the Babylonians were not really a world force to be reckoned with. This is why the Lord tells Habakkuk, "Look among the nations! Observe! Be astonished! Wonder! Because I am doing something in your days you would not believe if you were told" (Habakkuk 1:5).

Habakkuk 1:2-4 (speaking of internal conditions in Judah) points to a time after the reign of King Josiah (640-609 BC). However, during the reign of King Jehoiakim (609-597 BC), especially during the early years of his reign, the conditions do fit. He was a godless king who led the nation down the path to destruction --- II Kings 23:34 - 24:5; Jeremiah 22:18.

"It seems best, therefore, to assign the preaching of Habakkuk to a date shortly before 606 BC, but after the beginning of Babylon's westward move for world conquest" (Gleason Archer). "The probable date for this book is about 607 BC" (Expanded Open Bible).

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Upon the death of the good King Josiah at Megiddo (609 BC) --- II Kings 23:29 --- his son, Jehoahaz, was made king. He was only 23 years old, and according to II Kings 23:32 "he did evil in the sight of the Lord." He reigned for only 3 months, and then Pharaoh Neco of Egypt deposed him and put his brother, Jehoiakim (also called Eliakim), upon the throne (II Kings 23:33-37). He was 25 years old when he took the throne and he also did evil in the sight of God.

"Within a period of approximately 20 years the Chaldeans swept over Judah in successive waves, and ultimately destroyed the country and took its inhabitants away into captivity in 586 BC" (Zondervan's Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible). Internally, the people of God were caught up in religious decay and moral bewilderment.

"Looking about him Habakkuk sees a vivid demonstration of prevailing evils. He enumerates those who are proud and secure in their own ways (this list taken from: Schultz, The Old Testament Speaks):

• The unrighteous aggressors --- 2:6-8

 

• Those who justify their evil ways --- 2:9-11

 

• Those who shed blood for personal gain --- 2:12-14

 

• Those who deceive their neighbors --- 2:15-17

 

• Those who trust in idols --- 2:18-19

The above series of five woes is in the form of a masal (a taunt song), and they are basically against: greed and aggression ..... self-assertion, exploitation and extortion ..... violence ..... immorality and inhumanity ..... idolatry.

THE PURPOSE OF HABAKKUK

"The book of Habakkuk differs from other books of prophecy in one special aspect. Instead of taking Jehovah's message directly to the people, he takes the complaint of the people to Jehovah, representing them in the complaint" (Homer Hailey). Habakkuk is a man of God; a man of faith; who is perplexed by what is happening around him. He doesn't understand why God is doing what He is doing. It seems inconsistent with what has been previously revealed.

Therefore, the prophet goes to God and asks some difficult questions, and he receives some answers which greatly puzzle him. Nevertheless, through it all, whether he understands or not, his faith in God never wavers!! "His spirit is deeply troubled .... How could God permit so much suffering and death? How could God punish His own people, even though they had sinned, by a nation that was even more wicked?" (Hester, The Heart of Hebrew History). "How can a righteous God use the wicked Chaldeans to punish His people, which, in spite of its apostasy, is still more righteous than they?" (Zondervan's Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible).

"Violence and law-breaking abounded, and the wicked seemed at least superficially to triumph. According to all that Habakkuk knew about God's holiness and covenant (cf. Deut. 26-33, on which Habakkuk seemed dependent), Yahweh should have arisen to correct the situation, particularly in response to believing prayer for change by such as Habakkuk. Such correction had not been forthcoming, and the prayers of the righteous and the struggle for justice in the land seemed in vain, with the result that God's program of redemptive history was threatened" (Expositor's Bible Commentary, Vol. 7).

"Why is evil and suffering rampant in our world? Goodness and justice seem to fail! How is it, God, that you are so against wrong but you go on tolerating wrong? God, is what you are doing fair? Is this honestly the moral, ethical thing to do?" (D. Stuart Briscoe). "Habakkuk is a freethinking prophet who is not afraid to wrestle with issues that test his faith" (Expanded Open Bible). Such spiritual struggles are not new! "Jeremiah, too, questions and expostulates with God as he struggles with the intractable problem of the prosperity of the wicked --- Jeremiah 12:1-4; 13:17; 15:10-18; 20:7-18" (New Layman's Bible Commentary).

The book of Job also discusses the question of why the individual righteous man or woman suffers. This is further discussed in Psalm 37, 49 and 73. In the noncanonical literature it is discussed in such places as --- IV Ezra 3:29-36 and II Baruch 11:1-7. "How can one justify the facts of life with the doctrine of an all-powerful but just God who is active in history? Events do not seem to bear out the doctrine that sin brings retribution. God seems inactive!" (Jack Lewis). This was the problem with which Habakkuk wrestled!

Habakkuk, however, "was an honest seeker of the truth who went directly to God for the answer" (Hester, The Heart of Hebrew History). "While he is a man who has doubts and dares to express them, he does not make the mistake of ruling God out of the picture! Even though he is full of doubt he brings his distress and his doubts about God to God Himself!" (D. Stuart Briscoe). "Where men attempt to think through the age-old problem of evil and seek to relate the grim facts of history to a God of justice and power who holds all in His control, they find themselves drawn to Habakkuk" (New Layman's Bible Commentary).

The final conclusion of Habakkuk is that we must allow God to be God, and allow Him to do things His way and in His own good time. Our job is to trust Him and to live by faith! "The righteous will live by his faith" (Habakkuk 2:4) --- the key verse of this entire book!! Although things do not always turn out as we would like, yet we will rejoice in the Lord anyway! (Habakkuk 3:17-19).

"In spite of appearances to the contrary, God is still on the throne as the Lord of history and the Ruler of the nations. God may be slow to wrath, but all iniquity will be punished eventually. He is the worthiest object of faith, and the righteous man will trust in Him at all times" (Expanded Open Bible). "Apart from Isaiah (Is. 7:9; 28:16), no other prophet stressed the significance of faith and prayerful trust in such a way as did Habakkuk. The central theme of Habakkuk's prophecy, viz. that the righteous shall live by his faith (2:4), is taken up in the NT, and applied in significant contexts: Romans 1:17; Galatians 3:11; Hebrews 10:38-39" (Zondervan's Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible).

"The prophet closes his poems with one of the greatest declarations of faith to be found in biblical literature. The prophet who has raised such searching questions in the early part of the book declares that come the worst of it, he will hold steadfastly to the Lord" (Jack P. Lewis). "Though He slay me, I will hope in Him. Nevertheless I will argue my ways before Him" (Job 13:15).

"The growth of faith from perplexity and doubt to the height of absolute trust is one of the beautiful aspects of the book. Its lesson is for all time!" (Homer Hailey).

Jonah

by Al Maxey

PERSONAL BACKGROUND

The name Jonah (Hebrew: Yonah) means "dove." He was the son of Amittai, of the tribe of Zebulun (Joshua 19:13), and from the city of Gath-hepher which is in the region of Galilee. It is believed by some of the Jewish Rabbins that Jonah is to be identified with the dead son of a widow from Zarephath who was raised to life by Elijah (I Kings 17), however there is no basis at all for such an assumption. In II Kings 14:25 Jonah is mentioned as being a prophet of God during the reign of King Jeroboam II (793-753 BC). Jonah foretold of the wide extent of this king's conquests and the expansion of Israel's territory under his leadership.

As a result of the above very popular prophecy, which was fulfilled in a relatively short time, "Jonah must have enjoyed great popular respect as a true prophet .... this may explain his reluctance to accept a less popular commission .... and cause him to lose substantial face" (New Layman's Bible Commentary).

Technically, the book of Jonah is anonymous, however Jewish tradition holds that the author is Jonah himself. In more recent years it has come to be believed that "the book is about Jonah rather than by him." "It is chiefly a book about a prophet instead of being a collection of oracles of the prophet. Only eight words are needed to report Jonah's preaching -- Jonah 3:4" (Jack P. Lewis).

Jonah is the only "minor prophet" ever to be mentioned by Jesus Christ. He is also the only OT figure that Jesus Himself likens unto Himself (Matthew 12:39-41; 16:4; Luke 11:29-32). Although some contend this book is a fable and that Jonah never actually lived, the biblical evidence is to the contrary. II Kings 14:25 speaks of him as an actual historical figure. So does Jesus Christ. Josephus (an early Jewish historian) also regarded him as historical rather than fictional (Antiquities of the Jews, Book 9, Chapter 10, Sections 1-2). Also, when Paul wrote that Jesus "was buried, and that He was raised on the third day according to the Scriptures" (I Corinthians 15:4), he may well have been alluding, at least in part, to Jonah's experience.

The intertestamental writers (The Apocrypha) also regarded Jonah as an actual historical figure. He is listed among "The Twelve Prophets" in Sirach 49:10. Tobit 14:4 refers to "God's word which was spoken by Jonah against Nineveh" (although the Codex Sinaiticus reads "Nahum" at this location rather than "Jonah"). In III Maccabees 6:8 the deliverance of Jonah is one in a series of God's great acts of mercy of the past that forms a part of the prayer of Eleazar.

The Greeks have long expressed their deep veneration for the prophet Jonah. In the 6th century AD they dedicated a church to him --- (compare this action with what Peter sought to do in Luke 9:33).

DATE & OCCASION

From II Kings 14:25 we know that Jonah lived during the time of Jeroboam II (793-753 BC). He was sent to Nineveh --- the capital city of Assyria --- to deliver a warning from God that unless they repented they would be destroyed. There are several historical clues which seem to point to a date for this prophecy somewhere in the late 750's BC --- perhaps around 758 BC:

• During the reign of Adad-nirari III (811-783 BC) there was a swing toward monotheism. However, at his death the nation entered a period of national weakness and even greater moral decay. "During this time, Assyria was engaged in a life and death struggle with the mountain tribes of Urartu, and its associates of Mannai and Madai in the north, who had been able to push their frontier to within less than a hundred miles of Nineveh" (Expositor's Bible Commentary, Vol. 7).

 

• In 756 BC a plague struck the nation, followed by a second plague in 759 BC. In 763 BC there was an eclipse of the sun. These were "events of the type regarded by ancients as evidence of divine judgment, and could have prepared the people to receive Jonah's message" (The Ryrie Study Bible). "No doubt this depressed state of Assyria contributed much to the readiness of the people to hear Jonah as he began to preach to them" (Homer Hailey).

 

• There is some historical evidence that during the reign of Ashurdan III (771-754 BC) a religious awakening occurred. This may have been the result of Jonah's preaching. In 745 BC Tiglath-pileser III (745-727 BC) came to the throne and Assyria again became a major power. Under his leadership the Assyrians became "the rod of God's anger (Isaiah 10:5) against His rebellious people Israel. Israel finally fell to the Assyrians with the capture of Samaria in 722 BC (through the efforts of Tiglath-pileser's successors --- Shalmaneser V and Sargon II).

Through the preaching of Jonah, and the repentance of the people of Nineveh, the city was spared at this time. However, history tells us their repentance was fairly short-lived. Soon they had fallen back into their sinful way of life. The prophet Nahum was then sent to these same people. However, they failed to repent (as they had with Jonah), and thus were destroyed in 612 BC.

INTERPRETATIONS OF THE BOOK OF JONAH

Perhaps the greatest difficulty connected with this book is the matter of determining the method of interpretation. Until the 18th and 19th centuries, Jonah was regarded almost exclusively as historical fact. However, in the 20th century many other theories have been put forth as to how this book should best be interpreted. The following are the major theories of interpretation proposed:

• ALLEGORICAL --- "An allegory is a story consisting of a series of incidents which are analogous to a parallel series of happenings that they are intended to illustrate." Thus: Jonah = Israel ....... Jonah's flight = Israel's failure to fulfill its spiritual mission to the nations ....... The "great fish" = Babylon, which swallows up Israel in the captivity ....... Spitting out Jonah = the restoration of Israel to their homeland ....... Etc ....... Etc. (Jeremiah 51:31 speaks of Babylon "swallowing" Israel "like a monster," and it "filled his stomach." Then, in vs. 44, God says He will "bring forth out of his mouth that which he hath swallowed up.") --- Some regard this as biblical proof of their theory that Jonah is merely an allegory.

 

• PARABOLIC --- "A parable is a short, pithy story with a didactic aim." The moral of this story --- God's love for the nations. Jonah typifies "the narrow-minded, exclusivistic Jew with no love for the nations beyond its borders."

 

• MYTHICAL --- This point of view assumes that the whole story is nothing but a myth or legend which arose around some incident in the history of Israel.

 

• HISTORICAL --- This view holds that the narrative describes events which actually took place. This is the most likely view. Those who object to this view do so primarily on the basis of the miraculous element in the account (the "great fish" incident, for example). "Jesus placed His sanction on the story as historical fact ..... therefore, the historical interpretation is the only interpretation worthy of acceptance to all who believe that Jesus is the Christ" (Homer Hailey). "The effort to say that Jesus was only a man of his day and accepted certain views prevalent among those about him carries implications that we are not ready to accept" (Jack P. Lewis).

The fact that this account should be regarded as historical, however, does not mean there are no parabolic or allegorical or spiritual lessons to be derived from it. "This does not rule out the presence of typical lessons illustrated by the historical incidents" (The Ryrie Study Bible).

THE MIRACLES OF THE BOOK OF JONAH

The fact that there are obvious miracles recorded in this book has caused some --- who doubt or deny the miraculous power of God --- to label this work as fiction. There are several miracles recorded here, but "so much has been made of the 'fish story' that one is tempted to forget all else about the book of Jonah" (Jack P. Lewis). The various miracles recorded in the book of Jonah are:

• God raising up a storm --- 1:4
• God calming the storm --- 1:15
• God's commissioning of a great fish to swallow Jonah --- 1:17
• Jonah surviving three days & three nights inside the fish --- 1:17
• God commanding the fish to vomit Jonah out on dry land --- 2:10
• A city the size of Nineveh experiencing such a wide-spread repentance --- 3:5-9
• The Lord raising up a plant, a worm, and a scorching east wind --- 4:6-8

Dag Gadol is the Hebrew phrase which literally means "great fish." The Jews had no special word for "whale" (the word used in the KJV). Since the word dag may refer to a fish of any species, including the whale (which technically is not a fish at all), "it is reasonable to adhere to the traditional interpretation at this point, since no true fish --- as opposed to a marine mammal --- is known to possess a stomach as capacious as a whale's" (Gleason L. Archer, Jr.).

THE MAJOR MESSAGES OF JONAH

The overall message of the book is basically twofold:

1. God's love and concern is for all people, and anyone who is willing to repent and turn to God can find salvation (Acts 26:19-20; II Peter 3:9).

 

2. God is a universal God. There is but ONE God, and He alone is to be the God of all people. Jonah preached to a monotheistic people, but the god they worshipped was Nebo. He warned them they must repent and turn to Jehovah, and worship and serve Him only.

Some of the other great lessons of the book of Jonah are:

• "God's judgments, even when declared in prophecy, can be averted by genuine repentance." This is a "crucial theological truth relating human repentance to escaping from anticipated judgment" (New Layman's Bible Commentary). "Jeremiah 18:7-8 --- "At one moment I might speak concerning a nation or concerning a kingdom to uproot, to pull down, or to destroy it; if that nation against which I have spoken turns from its evil, I will relent concerning the calamity I planned to bring on it."

 

• National sin demands national repentance! Just as this principle applied to Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, so also does it apply to the nations of today!

 

• This book is a stern rebuke of a narrow exclusiveness that characterized the Israelites. Jonah, whose attitude was typical of his people, had no desire to see the Assyrians saved --- they were the enemy! He fled rather than preach such a distasteful message to this distasteful people. And even after finally preaching it, he sat outside the city waiting to see if God would change His mind and still destroy them. When he realized God was indeed going to show mercy to these people, he prayed to die rather than have to witness such a thing! (Jonah 4:1-3).
• When we today hold to such an attitude --- "We are the only ones God favors" ....... "We would rather die than see those people saved!" ....... "We're not about to preach the gospel to that bunch" --- then we have repeated the sin of Jonah. Further, we have failed to perceive the universal love of God. Jonah symbolizes a narrow, sectarian spirit!

 

• One cannot run away from God (Psalm 139:7-12). "Jonah learned, and through his valuable experience millions have learned, that when God enjoins a disagreeable duty, it is far easier to go and do it than to run away from it" (J.W. McGarvey). "When one sets out to baffle God, there is bound to be a storm" (George L. Robinson).

 

• "The infinite concern of God for life is shown in contrast to the concern of man for the material" (Homer Hailey). "The withering of the prophet's gourd, with the regrets it excited, strikes home in all ages, as it must have done in Jonah's day, the contrast between the infinite love of God and the selfish coldness of man. The growth of a night can be pitied when it touches ourselves; but unspeakably higher claims too often awaken no tenderness where we are not personally concerned" (Cunningham Geikie).

 

• In Jonah one sees "the forerunner of the universal gospel message" and messenger (Hailey). Also, we see the principle that "the most unpromising mission fields are often the most responsive" (The Ryrie Study Bible). "From the human standpoint Assyria was the last place an Israelite would choose for a missionary venture, so Jonah took a trip in the opposite direction" (Samuel J. Schultz).

 

• "There is no remonstrance and no mention of Jonah's former call and flight (Jonah 3:1-2). The Lord passes this over in gracious silence" (Homer Hailey). The Lord is willing to forgive and forget!

Haggai

by Al Maxey

PERSONAL BACKGROUND

The name Haggai means "festival, feast, festive." Some suggest it may be a shortened form of Haggiah which means "festival of Jehovah." This has led many to conjecture that he may have been born on one of the major festival or feast days of the Jews (Passover, for example). Although he is referred to as a "prophet" (Haggai 1:1; Ezra 5:1; 6:14), little else is known of this man. His father's name is never mentioned. It is assumed that he was born in Babylon during the time of the captivity.

It is very likely Haggai returned to Jerusalem with the first group of 50,000 persons led by Zerubbabel in 536 BC. It is also possible he did some writing of psalms during this time. The Septuagint (the Greek version of the OT, which was made around 250 BC) credits him as being the author/co-author of several psalms (Psalms 138, 146-149).

"In the Midrash and Talmud, legend makes Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi to be the founders of the 'Great Synagogue' (Aboth R. Nathan 1; Baba Bathra 15a), a body that is alleged to have played a great role in post-exilic times in preserving Scripture and handing on the traditional precepts and lore. It is further believed by the rabbis that after these three prophets died the Holy Spirit departed from Israel" (Jack P. Lewis).

"It is legitimate to suppose that Haggai was still a child when he returned to Judea with his parents in 536 BC" (Zondervan's Pictorial Encyclopedia). Haggai was a contemporary of Zechariah and also of Confucius (557-479 BC). Haggai was the first prophet in Jerusalem after the return from Babylonian captivity. The prophecy of Haggai is second only to that of Obadiah in brevity among OT books.

DATE

The prophet dates his own work very precisely. Haggai 1:1 dates it in the "second year of Darius the king." This is Darius I, son of Hystaspes (522-486 BC). Thus, the prophecy is dated in the year 520 BC.

This book consists of four brief oracles, each of which is precisely dated within this year. They were delivered "between August and the last of December in the year 520 BC" (Hester, The Heart of Hebrew History). Thus, the four oracles of this prophecy all occur within a four month period.

Haggai was the first to prophesy to the people who had returned, although Zechariah soon followed. Haggai's ministry was very brief, but Zechariah's lasted much longer. "Some have the honor to lead, others to last, in the work of God" (Matthew Henry).

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

In the year 586 BC the southern kingdom of Judah fell to the Babylonians, and the city of Jerusalem was reduced to ruins, along with the Temple. The people were led away into captivity (those who weren't killed), although a few were allowed to remain behind to live in the ruins. During the next several decades these few who remained in their homeland began to intermarry with the men and women of the foreign nations around them (including some of the Assyrians who had fled the destruction of their own nation). This merging of peoples led to the group known as the Samaritans, who, when the Jews returned to their land after the captivity, would become one of their major opponents.

During the period of the captivity, the prophets Daniel and Ezekiel, who were also taken captive, provided spiritual hope and guidance to the exiles. In the year 562 BC King Nebuchadnezzar died and Babylon then had a series of weak rulers. There was no one really strong enough to hold the empire together. In 549 BC Cyrus (who had become king of the Persians about ten years earlier) defeated the Median king and united the Medes and Persians.

In 539 BC (on October 13) Cyrus overthrew the city of Babylon and appointed a "phantom king" over the city. This king is known in the Bible as Darius the Mede, who is probably Gubaru (or Gabryas) of secular history (this is not the same Darius as the one mentioned in Haggai).

Cyrus was a very benevolent ruler and had a policy of allowing enslaved peoples to return to their homelands and rebuild their temples and reinstitute their religious practices. In 538 BC Cyrus issued a decree which allowed the Jews to return to their homeland (II Chron. 36:22-23; Ezra 1:1-4). Over 150 years before this event, Isaiah had prophesied that God would use Cyrus to bring about this restoration (Isaiah 44:24 - 45:7).

This return of the Jews to their homeland took place in several stages. Not all the Jews in captivity wanted to return. Many had been born in Babylon and had, over the years, built up prosperous commercial enterprises. Also, "the prospect of a return to a desolate and impoverished land, and rebuilding the ruins of the past, had little practical appeal to those Jews who had managed to take advantage of the generous and rather naive Babylonians. Only those Jews who had caught a vision of service to God and man in the light of the promised covenant were seriously interested in the challenge" (Zondervan's Pictorial Encyclopedia). The various stages of this return were:

• 536 BC  --- About 50,000 return under Zerubbabel. Joshua, the priest, served as the religious leader of the returned people. Haggai returned with this group ....... Ezra 2.

 

• 457 BC  --- A second group, led by Ezra, consisting of about 2058 persons, returns. Several reforms are instituted, including the problem of inter-marriage with the nations ....... Ezra 8-10.

 

• 445 BC  --- A third group, led by Nehemiah, returns. Nehemiah serves as the governor of Jerusalem. The walls are rebuilt ....... Nehemiah 2.

Upon the return of the first group (536 BC) work began on the Temple. The altar of sacrifice was restored and the foundation for the new Temple was laid. However, at this point the people ceased their work. The city and houses and wall were all in ruins, the land had been neglected for 50 years and food was scarce. The Jews who had remained in the land and intermarried with the nations offered to help rebuild, but their offer was declined --- this led to hard feelings and opposition. As a result, the people became discouraged. They turned their full attention upon surviving. Then, once they had met the basic necessities of life, they began looking toward the luxuries, and in the process became apathetic toward the rebuilding of the Temple.

Cyrus was succeeded by his son Cambyses (529-522 BC). After this king came Darius I (522-486 BC). Two years into his reign (520 BC), and 16 years after work had ceased on the Temple, God raised up the prophet Haggai "to combat apathy and depression by giving inspired leadership" for the reconstruction of the Temple (Zondervan's Pictorial Encyclopedia).

THE MESSAGE OF HAGGAI

Haggai "was a man of one paramount idea --- build the Temple!" (Homer Hailey). His desire was to see the Temple reconstructed and their worship of God reinstituted. The people had become discouraged and, as a result, forgetful of God. Their priorities were all wrong; they were thinking of themselves and not of God; building their own houses, but not His! Haggai was sent as a motivator and edifier --- Get your priorities right! Put God first, and He'll take care of your other needs (Matthew 6:33).

The message of Haggai was extremely well-received and effective. "Within three weeks and a few days after his first address to the people they began work on the Temple again" (Hailey). One of the reasons for his success was his dependence on the Word of the Lord! Twenty-six times (in a book of only 38 verses!) he appeals to God as the authority and source of his message. Such expressions as "saith Jehovah," "declares the Lord of hosts," and the like are very common. "This appeal to the Divine origin of what he said stirred the people, moved their hearts, and got results" (Hailey). "No prophet ever appeared at a more critical juncture in the history of a people, and it may be added, no prophet was more successful" (Marcus Dods).

The Temple was completed in 516 BC, twenty years after it was started and seventy years after it was destroyed in 586 BC (Ezra 6:15). This new Temple was desecrated in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (168 BC), but later cleaned up. It was added on to by Herod the Great. It was essentially this same Temple that Jesus and the apostles entered time and again during their ministries.

Haggai teaches us that faithfulness and material blessings are directly connected; that "when a good work is awaiting its accomplishment, the time to do it is now" (Farrar); that "discouragement, however profound, is not an adequate reason for neglecting duties, even when they seem to be encompassed with difficulty. 'Be strong and work' is a glorious motto for human life" (Farrar); that "the basis of all successful preaching is 'saith Jehovah.' It got results then, and such preaching will get results today!" (Homer Hailey).

Nahum

by Al Maxey

PERSONAL BACKGROUND

The name of this prophet --- Nahum --- means "comfort, consolation." It is a shortened form of Nehemiah which means "the comfort of Yahweh." This prophet is only mentioned once in the entire Bible (Nahum 1:1). His name "is in a sense symbolical of the message of the book, which was intended to comfort and console the oppressed and afflicted people of Judah" (Eiselen).

He is identified as "Nahum the Elkoshite." Some assume this refers to the name of his father (Elkoshai) and that he was actually born in Bethabor (which is beyond Jordan). The Chaldee Scriptures call him "Nahum of Beth-koshi." Most likely, though, this name refers to the place of his birth. The identification of this town is much disputed, however. There are four major theories:

1. A 16th century tradition identifies Elkosh with Al-Qush in Iraq, north of the site of Nineveh on the Tigris River. Nestorius (Patriarch of Constantinople --- 428-431 AD) mentioned an alleged "tomb of Nahum" at this site.

 

2. Jerome (340-420 AD), who produced the Latin Vulgate version of the Bible, believed it was in Galilee at a place called "Elkesi" near Ramah.

 

3. Most conservative scholars believe that Elkosh was a city in southern Judah (later called "Elcesei") which was midway between Jerusalem and Gaza. "This would make Nahum a prophet of the southern kingdom and may explain his interest in the triumph of Judah --- Nahum 1:15; 2:2" (The Open Bible -- Expanded Version).

 

4. Many have speculated the city of "Capernaum" (Hebrew -- Kepar-Nahum), which means "village of Nahum," may have been the site of Elkosh, and that the city was renamed in honor of the prophet who came from there. Capernaum, however, was in Galilee, and some feel that John 7:52 refutes this view --- "Search, and see that no prophet arises out of Galilee."

Other views as to the location of this city are --- It was in Judah near Eleutheropolis, according to Pseudo-Epiphanius. Benjamin of Tudela (12th century AD) claimed to have seen Nahum's tomb south of Babylon. Ultimately, one must admit that the actual location of Elkosh is unknown, although it seems very likely, based upon internal evidence from the book of Nahum itself, that this prophet was a resident of Judah.

DATE

Scholars are able to date the prophecy of Nahum fairly accurately based upon three major considerations:

1. In Nahum 3:8-10 the prophet speaks of the fall of the city of Thebes (No-amon) which was in upper Egypt. It is viewed as an event which had already occurred. Thebes fell to the Assyrians in 661 BC. Thus, this prophecy must have been written after this time.
• Ten years after its fall, Thebes had begun to rise from its ruins, to rebuild, and to regain its former glory. If Nahum had waited too long after the fall of Thebes to use its destruction as a warning to Nineveh, the force of this warning would have been lost. Nineveh might well assume --- If Thebes can recover that quickly, then so can we!

 

1. The fall of Nineveh is viewed as a future occurrence. The city fell in 612 BC when the Medes and the Babylonians finally destroyed it. Thus, the prophecy must have been written prior to this event.

 

2. Nahum speaks of Nineveh as being "strong and full of her old imperial arrogance" (Blaiklock). This would place the prophecy in the time of Ashurbanipal (668-625 BC); it was under his successors that the nation declined and fell.
• Nahum also mentions no king in his introduction. This has led some to the conclusion there was no king over God's people at that time worthy of mention --- this could well have been King Manasseh (686-642 BC).

All of these factors, and others which could be discussed as well, seem to point to a time around 655 BC. This would be just a little over four decades from the fall of this mighty nation.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The brutal imperialism of Assyria had been a curse to the lands of the Middle East for a couple of centuries. From the very beginning they had a policy of "westward conquest and world domination." They were noted as being one of the most aggressive, brutal, cruel and wicked nations on earth. "Assyria was a nation largely geared for aggressive war and its atrocities were proverbial. Nineveh saw men and nations as tools to be exploited to gratify the lust of conquest and commercialism. Assyria existed to render no service to mankind" (Willis).

Jonah prophesied to Nineveh about 758 BC. This resulted in a national repentance. However, this change of heart was short-lived. Nineveh repented of its repentance! They were soon back on a course of world conquest and wicked aggression. Following is a list of her kings and conquests from the time of her "change of heart" until her destruction:

Tiglath-pileser III (745-727 BC) --- He began a program of world conquest. He invaded the West and deported some of the inhabitants of northern Israel, removing them to an area north of Nineveh. He also extended his authority into Judah, exacting tribute from them ....... II Kings 15:29; 16:5-18; I Chron. 5:6, 26; II Chron. 28:16f; 30:6.

Shalmaneser V (727-722 BC) --- He began the siege of Samaria, the capital city of the northern kingdom of Israel. He died before the city fell.

Sargon II (722-705 BC) --- He completed the siege of Samaria. The city fell in 722 BC, thus bringing an end to the northern kingdom of Israel ....... II Kings 17:3-6. He was murdered in 705 BC.

Sennacherib (705-681 BC) --- King Hezekiah (728-687 BC) abandoned his pro-Assyrian policy (II Kings 18:7, 19-20). As a result, Sennacherib invaded Judah (701 BC), conquered its fortified cities, and surrounded Jerusalem. He boasted that he had shut up Hezekiah in Jerusalem "as a bird in a cage!" However, the Angel of the Lord struck 185,000 of his soldiers dead in a single night, and the army withdrew ....... II Kings 18:13 - 19:36; II Chron. 32:1-31; Isaiah 36:1 - 37:38. He was murdered by two of his sons (Adrammelech and Sharezer), and a third son (Esarhaddon) became king ....... II Kings 19:37; Isaiah 37:38.

Esarhaddon (681-668 BC) --- It was this king who captured King Manasseh (686-642 BC) and led him away for a brief period of captivity (II Chron. 33:10-13). He died while marching against Egypt in an effort to subdue them.

Ashurbanipal (668-625 BC) --- This king completed the campaign into Egypt which resulted in the fall of "No-amon" (Thebes) in 661 BC (Nahum 3:8-10). He extended Assyria's influence farther than any of his predecessors. Under his rule, Nineveh became the mightiest city on earth. According to the records, he was an extremely cruel man.

• The City --- The walls of Nineveh were almost 8 miles around. they were 100' high and wide enough that three chariots could ride on them side-by-side. Around the walls were towers that stretched an additional 100 feet above the top of the wall. In addition, there was a moat around the city 150' wide and 60' deep. Nineveh had enough provisions within the city to withstand a 20 year siege. Thus, Nahum's prophecy of the overthrow of this city seemed very unlikely indeed to the inhabitants. It was also a city filled with gardens and parks and even a zoo. The royal palace had an area of almost 100,000 square feet, and its walls were sculptured with scenes of the king's victories. There were 15 main gates with huge stone bulls standing guard at each.

Assur-etil-ilani and Sinshumlishir (625-620 BC) --- These two sons of Ashurbanipal had brief and ineffective reigns. The dynastic stability of Assyria was beginning to decline.

Sin-shar-ishkun (620-612 BC) --- This was the son of Assur-etil-ilani. He was also known as Esarhaddon II. During this time Nabopolassar (625-605 BC) established himself as the king of Babylon and began capturing Assyrian holdings. By 616 BC he had won complete independence from Assyria for Babylon. In 614 BC the Medes, under Cyaxares, captured the city of Ashur and inflicted a brutal massacre on the population. An alliance was then formed between the Medes and the Babylonians and the Scythians, and the siege of Nineveh began. The siege lasted 3 months, and it ended (according to the Babylonian Chronicle) when flood waters breached the walls allowing the soldiers to enter the city. This was according to the prophecy --- "With an overflowing flood He will make a complete end of its site" (Nahum 1:8). The Tigris River had overflowed its banks and eaten away at the walls. "As walls of those ancient cities were generally formed of brick kneaded with straw and baked in the sun, a flood of waters could easily effect their dissolution" (Adam Clarke). When the enemy entered the city, King Sin-shar-ishkun gathered his wives and children and all his wealth into the palace and set it on fire. They all perished in the fire.

A few of the Assyrians tried to hold out at Haran and reform the government, but they were defeated in 606 BC by King Nebuchadnezzar at the battle of Carchemish. The destruction of Nineveh was so complete that about 200 years later, when Xenophon the Athenian and "the Ten Thousand," backing out of their entanglement in Persia, passed by the site they said there was no evidence a city had ever been there!! Nahum 3:11, 17 predicted that they would be "hidden" and their place "not known." In more modern times, the site was not discovered until 1842. Today, the site is covered by fields, a water tower for a nearby village, a cemetery, and a local dump!

THE MESSAGE OF NAHUM

The people of Nineveh had quickly reverted to their cruel and heathen practices. "They had not transmitted their knowledge of the true God to their children" (Ryrie Study Bible). They had repented of their repentance! Therefore, God, through Nahum, foretold the complete destruction of this kingdom. He had spared them once (during the time of Jonah), He would not do so again. Unlike Jonah, Nahum does not actually go to the city of Nineveh, rather he declares his oracle from afar. There is no hope of any repentance taking place, thus no need to go to the city.

Although this book is concerned with the downfall of Assyria, it is nevertheless written for the benefit of Judah. God has demonstrated His patience and long-suffering; now He will demonstrate His wrath! The message of this book is that although God may be slow to wrath, He nevertheless always "settles His accounts in full!" "Though God is slow to anger and abundant in loving-kindness (as His action toward Nineveh in the book of Jonah shows), His long-suffering is not to be interpreted as indifference or as lack of power --- Nahum 1:1-6" (Willis).

This is also a message of consolation for the people of Judah who are being oppressed by Assyria. Regardless of how things may seem, God does not forget His people. The book of Revelation is a perfect example of this message. "When the forces opposing God are so firmly ensconced and the flickering lamp of God's people is at the point of extinction, however, it is easy for the remnant to forget. Nahum reminds us, as do the ruins of ancient Nineveh, that God Himself is the ultimate Ruler. HE WILL HAVE THE FINAL WORD!!" (Expositor's Bible Commentary).

"Some have objected to the joyous attitude with which Nahum greets the prospect of the fall of Assyria's capital, and regard it as an exhibition of nationalistic fanaticism and vengeful malice. This, however, is a misunderstanding of the ground which the prophet occupies. Because he is a man of God, he speaks as one who is wholly preoccupied with the Lord's cause on earth. His earnest desire is to see Jehovah vindicate His holiness in the eyes of the heathen, as over against the inhumane and ruthless tyranny of that God-defying empire which had for such a long time trampled upon all the subject nations with heartless brutality" (Gleason Archer).

J.M.P. Smith describes him as an "enthusiastic, optimistic patriot," but "his book is not the recording of personal glee over the fall of Nineveh, expressing the narrow hatred and prejudice of a single individual; but it is the fervent expression of the outraged conscience of mankind" (Homer Hailey). "It is one great 'At Last'" (G.A. Smith).

"His cry is not only the cry of jubilation at the fall of an oppressive foe, but is also the cry of faith in the sovereign rule of Jehovah and a vindication of confidence that He will avenge His elect when the time is ripe. The lesson of his beautifully worded yet dreadful prophecy is one to which the world could well give heed today. The prophet reveals the eternal principle of the omnipotent God that for a nation to survive it must be established upon and directed by principles of righteousness and truth. Wickedness will eventually turn a nation back to Sheol, the oblivion of the unseen, when it makes cruelty and wickedness the standard by which it lives" (Homer Hailey).

Micah

by Al Maxey

PERSONAL BACKGROUND

The name Micah is a shortened form of Micaiah which means "Who is like unto the Lord?" The longer form of this name appears (In the Hebrew text) in Jeremiah 26:18. In Micah 7:18 a word play is made on his name. "Who is a God like Thee, who pardons iniquity and passes over the rebellious act of the remnant of His possession?"

Micah was from the town of Moresheth (Micah 1:1), which was near Gath (Micah 1:14), which was about 25 miles SW of Jerusalem. This was a productive agricultural area on the border of Judah and Philistia. Through this area the armies and commercial caravans frequently passed, as it was the main road to the Maritime Plain and to Egypt. "Because of this the young prophet had opportunities to learn of big events taking place in his time" (Hester, The Heart of Hebrew History).

Nothing is known of his family or home life. However, like Amos (whose hometown of Tekoa was just 17 miles away), Micah was a man of the country. "From his book one can surmise that Micah lived close to both the people and the soil and possessed a keen sympathy for both. Moresheth was sufficiently detached from Jerusalem to produce men of courage and independence of thought" (Homer Hailey). "His father's name is not given, and we conclude that his family was of humble origin" (Gleason Archer).

Micah was a contemporary of Isaiah and Amos and Hosea. Some have even speculated that he might have been a student of the prophet Isaiah --- there are certainly several similarities in their two prophetic books (Isaiah 2:2-4 and Micah 4:1-3 are almost identical). "Micah, however, was a rustic prophet with a rural ministry while city-bred Isaiah devoted his prophetic efforts to the population and court of Jerusalem" (Schultz, The Old Testament Speaks). "Hence he was not in as close touch with international politics as was his contemporary, Isaiah. His ministry was especially preoccupied with the sufferings of the common people and of the peasants in the agricultural areas who were exploited by rich and unscrupulous landed nobility" (Archer). "Micah was the prophet of the poor and downtrodden" .... who displays "the courageous and fearless spirit of one who is indignant over the corruption and heartlessness of inhuman rulers and time-serving religionists" (Hailey).

DATE

Micah 1:1 places his prophecies over a lengthy period of time --- during the reigns of King Jotham (750-731 BC), King Ahaz (736-715 BC), and King Hezekiah (715-686 BC) .... all of whom were kings of the southern kingdom of Judah. "From Jeremiah 26:18-19 we learn that his earnest warnings during the reign of Hezekiah were taken seriously, and made an important contribution to the revival which took place under government sponsorship" (Archer).

Although the active ministry of Micah may well have covered a period of some 50 years, "it seems likely that the bulk of his recorded prophetic oracles were uttered in the period 725-710 BC" (Zondervan's Pictorial Encyclopedia). Other sources revise this figure to 735-710 BC to allow for work during the reign of King Jotham.

It is pretty obvious that this book is a collection of prophecies which were delivered over a period of several decades. "It is a series of messages called oracles given at different times, in different circumstances, in all probability spanning a considerable length of time. It is important to recognize this if we are going to make any sense out of what Micah is saying" (Stuart Briscoe).

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The biblical texts for the history of this period are --- II Kings 15-20; II Chronicles 27-32; Isaiah 36-39. Micah speaks to both the northern and southern kingdoms (Israel and Judah), "although he deals primarily with Judah."

The northern kingdom of Israel was soon to fall to Assyria. This occurred in 722 BC, probably within a decade of his warning that destruction was coming (Micah 1:6). The southern kingdom of Judah would become an "Assyrian vassal state" for many years, and would be forced to pay a heavy tribute to Assyria.

King Hezekiah finally abandoned this pro-Assyrian policy (II Kings 18:7, 19-20), and Sennacherib invaded Judah (701 BC), but the Lord overthrew them and drove them back. Hezekiah then introduced some broad religious reforms.

It was during this time that Micah worked. He also predicted the fall of Judah to Babylon, and their subsequent restoration (Micah 4:10). This would not occur for quite some time, however (around 125 years later), so was not taken too seriously by the people.

A great deal of Micah's message may well fall within the time of King Ahaz. "The corrupt and idolatrous conditions reflected throughout the book may be related to the low ebb of morality and religious interest during the days of Ahaz" (Schultz, The Old Testament Speaks). "Socially and morally Judah presented a dark picture" at this time (Hailey). The wealthy coveted the land of the people around them (Micah 2:1-2). They robbed the poor (Micah 2:8f). Corrupt business ethics were practiced (Micah 6:11). There were numerous false prophets (Micah 2:11) who prophesied for reward (Micah 3:11). The priests also taught for a price (Micah 3:11). Rulers and judges could be bribed (Micah 7:3).

The people were religious, but it was an empty ceremonialism. "Religion had become a matter of form; ceremonial observances were thought to meet all religious requirements. There was widespread misapprehension that as long as the external acts of worship were scrupulously performed the people were entitled to the divine favor and protection" (Homer Hailey). "The people have replaced heartfelt worship with empty ritual, thinking that this is all God demands. They have divorced God's standards of justice from their daily dealings in order to cover their unscrupulous practices" (The Expanded Open Bible).

PURPOSE OF MICAH

"Stemming from the poorer, working class, Micah was acutely aware of the injustices and avarice of the rich. While he was interested in the political affairs of his nation, it was only as they were connected with the religious and moral situation that Micah spoke to them" (Zondervan's Pictorial Encyclopedia). Micah wants the people to realize that true faith in God results in personal holiness and social justice! He "emphasizes the integral relationship between true spirituality and social ethics" (Expanded Open Bible). "Worship and morality cannot be divorced from each other. They are two sides of the same coin" (Jack P. Lewis).

"Keenly he realizes that no multitude of sacrifices can adequately be substituted for righteousness in practice" (Schultz, The Old Testament Speaks). "These people have been professing much and performing little. 'God has been observing the contradiction between creed and conduct,' says the prophet, 'and He will not tolerate it anymore'" (D. Stuart Briscoe).

What does the Lord require of you?! Micah 6:8 answers the question --- "To do justice, to love kindness, and to walk humbly with your God." "How will the world know that I am walking humbly with my God? They will know by the way I treat people. Those who walk humbly with their God have a passionate concern for justice being done in society, and a deep concern to treat people lovingly and mercifully" (D. Stuart Briscoe).

Micah is the first prophet to specifically threaten Judah with the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple (Micah 3:12). He also threatens them with the failure of prophecy (Micah 3:6-7) --- there would be no word from God; no guidance! Micah is also the first to point to Bethlehem as the city from which the Messiah would come (Micah 5:2). The chief priests and scribes referred back to this prophecy when Herod asked where the Messiah would be born (Matthew 2:4-7). This passage also came up in a dispute among the multitude over from where the Messiah would originate (John 7:40-44). Also, Micah 2:12-13; 4:1-8; 5:4-5 "offer some of the best OT descriptions of the righteous reign of Christ over the whole world" (Expanded Open Bible). And, Jesus quoted Micah 7:6 when He spoke to the Twelve about discipleship (Matthew 10:36).

THE PUNS OF MICAH

"The latter part of the 1st chapter (1:10-16) reveals the prophet's skill as a communicator. He uses a play on words, showing that he is as clever a punster as he is a strikingly gifted poet!" (Briscoe). Efforts to render these into English may be seen in the translations of Moffat and Phillips. It is "the longest series of sustained puns in the OT, in which Micah describes the advance of the Assyrian army through his section of country" (Jack P. Lewis).

For example --- Gath (1:10) sounds like the Hebrew word for tell, so it's as if he were saying, "Tell it not in Tell City." Also, in 1:10 he writes, "In Beth-le-aphrah (house of dust) roll yourself in the dust." Zaanan (1:11) means "going out," so he is saying, "Those of you in 'Go Out City' will not go out." Etc.

"Imagine an American preacher saying, 'Living in Pittsburgh is the pits,' or 'Los Angeles is not a city of angels,' or 'Wisconsin should only be pronounced Wiscon-sin.' That would get the people's attention. Micah was having a problem getting his message across to the people so he chose this dramatic vehicle to reach them" (Briscoe).

Zechariah

by Al Maxey

PERSONAL BACKGROUND

The name Zechariah (Hebrew: Zekar-yah) means "Yahweh has remembered." This was a very common Hebrew name. There are almost 30 different men with this name mentioned in the Bible, "presumably because the Lord had remembered the prayers of the parents for a baby boy" (Gleason L. Archer, Jr.).

Zech. 1:1 indicates he was the son of Berechiah and the grandson of Iddo. Iddo was one of the priests who returned to Jerusalem in the group led by Zerubbabel (Neh. 12:4, 16; Ezra 5:1; 6:14). Zechariah was also one of the ones who returned under Zerubbabel, and he was already a priest at the time of the return (Neh. 12:16). It is also very likely he was just a young man (Hebrew: na'ar) at this time (Zech. 2:4). He was likely born in Babylon, and perhaps had just become a priest at the time the exiles returned to Jerusalem.

Jewish tradition states that Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi were the founders of the Great Synagogue. The Greek Old Testament (The Septuagint) also credits Zechariah and Haggai as being the co-authors of several of the Psalms (see the study in this series on Haggai).

In Matthew 23:35 and Luke 11:51 Jesus speaks of "Zechariah, the son of Berechiah" who was "murdered between the temple and the altar." (NOTE --- Another priest by the name of Zechariah ... the son of Jehoiada ... was also killed in the court of the temple (II Chron. 24:20-22). Some contend Jesus, or some scribe making a copy of the biblical text, confused these two men. Others maintain they were two separate men who happened to suffer similar fates.)

"A tomb is shown to this day at the foot of the Mount of Olives, which, it is pretended, belongs to the prophet Zechariah. Others maintain that he is buried in a place called Bethariah, 150 furlongs from Jerusalem" (Adam Clarke). Zechariah "has been called the prophet with 'the soul of an artist and the eye of a seer'" (H.I. Hester, The Heart of Hebrew History).

DATE

According to Zech. 1:1 this prophet began to prophesy two months after his contemporary Haggai began his work (see Haggai 1:1). This would place the beginning of Zechariah's work as a prophet around the month of November, 520 BC. From Zech 7:1 we know that Zechariah prophesied for at least two more years. Chapters 9-14 are undated, however, and due to various stylistic differences, and due to internal evidence, "it is likely that this message was given after the dedication of the Temple. Presumably this represents Zechariah's message during a later period in his prophetic career" (Schultz, The Old Testament Speaks).

NOTE --- There are those who do not believe Zechariah authored chapters 9-14. The two major theories about this are:

1. The Pre-Exilic Theory --- which contends this section was written prior to the exile, perhaps by Jeremiah.

 

2. The Post-Alexandrian Theory --- which contends it was written after the time of Alexander the Great (356 - 323 BC) by an unknown author. This is viewed as necessary by some because of the reference to Greece in Zech. 9:13. Keil, however, states that such conclusions against the "unity of authorship of the entire book are founded upon false interpretations and misunderstandings!"

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Haggai "furnished the initial impetus for laying the foundation of the second Temple, whereas Zechariah helped materially toward the completion of the project by giving a larger spiritual dimension to the restored theocracy through his prophetic oracles. With his contemporary Haggai he was called to give that kind of spiritual leadership which would regenerate the theocracy, recall it to its true vocation, and guide it toward its destiny as the living witness of God in the world" (Zondervan's Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible).

Zechariah "began to prophecy at the time when zeal for the ideals of the theocracy had reached a very low ebb." "As was the case with Haggai, the primary concern of Zechariah was the establishing of spiritual priorities in the life of the returned community." Zechariah saw the "dangers involved in cultic formalism;" he realized that "submission, penitence, and cleansing from sin must precede the outpouring of Divine blessing;" and that "the prosperity of the theocracy depended upon a proper relationship between the covenant people and their God" (Zondervan's Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible).

CHARACTERIZATION OF THE BOOK

"Zechariah is the longest and most obscure of all the twelve minor prophets" (Adam Clarke). "It is the most difficult of any of the OT books to interpret" (Homer Hailey). Zechariah "is the most Messianic, the most truly apocalyptic and eschatological, of all the writings of the OT" (Robinson). "Zechariah predicted more about the Messiah than any other prophet except Isaiah" (Ryrie Study Bible). "No prophet of the entire OT is more concerned with the Messianic hope or gives more specific predictions about the coming of the Messiah" (The Open Bible).

"Zechariah has exercised a greater influence upon the Messianic picture of the NT than any other minor prophet" (Jack P. Lewis). There are prophecies concerning His first coming --- 3:8; 9:9, 16; 11:11-13; 12:10; 13:1, 6-7, and there are prophecies concerning His second coming --- chapter 14. "Christ is portrayed in His two advents as both Servant and King, Man and God" (The Expanded Open Bible). The following are a few of Zechariah's explicit anticipations of Christ:

• The Angel of the Lord --- 3:1
• The stone with seven eyes --- 3:9
• The Righteous Branch --- 3:8; 6:12-13
• The King/Priest --- 6:13
• The humble King --- 9:9-10
• The cornerstone, tent peg, & bow of battle --- 10:4
• The Good Shepherd who is rejected & sold for 30 shekels of silver, the price of a slave --- 11:4-13
• The pierced one --- 12:10
• The cleansing fountain --- 13:1
• The smitten Shepherd who is abandoned --- 13:7
• The coming Judge & righteous King --- chapter 14

Jack Lewis points out that "Zechariah exercised other influences on the NT. His demand that everyone speak truth to his neighbor is echoed by Paul (Zech. 8:16; Eph. 4:25). The reader of the book of Revelation may also find here the antecedent of certain pictures employed by that writer." For example:

• The four horsemen --- Zech. 6:1-8; Rev. 6:1-8

 

• The two olive trees --- Zech. 4:3f; Rev. 11:4

 

• The lampstand & seven eyes --- Zech. 4:2-10; Rev. 1:12f

In Zechariah Satan appears as the accuser to bring men's failings to the attention of God --- Zech. 3:1f; cf. I Chron. 21:1; Job 1:6f; 2:1f.

Homer Hailey notes "Zechariah differs in three points from the prophets who preceded him:

1. He gives emphasis to visions as a means of divine communication. It is true that visions appear in the Book of Amos, but not in proportion to those in Zechariah.

 

2. Angelic mediation occupies an important place in his message. Angels are especially conspicuous in the first six chapters of the book.

 

3. Apocalyptic symbolism entering into the visions is another outstanding characteristic of this prophet's writings."

"The prophet sees and emphasizes the truth that ultimate triumph is dependent on Divine cooperation and on the submission of the people to God's Divine Will" (Homer Hailey). "It would be impossible to exaggerate the importance of such passages from this Minor Prophet in the preaching and the faith of early Christians!" (The Open Bible).

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